Luogo e data di registrazione		St. Savinien Kirche (Francia) - 11-14 luglio 1978
	Registrazione: live / studio		studio
	Producer / Engineer		Gerd Berg / Wilhelm Meister
	Prima Edizione LP		EMI Electrola "Reflexe" - 1C 065-45 641 - (1 lp) - durata 59' 17" - (p) 1979 - Analogico
	Prima Edizione CD		EMI "Classics" - CDM 7 63071 2 - (1 cd) - durata 59' 19" - (c) 1989 - ADD
	Edizione CD		EMI "Classics" - 8 26516 2 - (1 cd) - durata 59' 17" - (c) 2000 - ADD
	Note		-

Catalonian Music in the Second Half of the Fourteenth Century Extending south of the Pyrenees all the way to the Mediterranean Sea and bordering to the West on Castile and Navarra, the kingdom of Aragón was a natural converging point for a number of cultures. The kingdom was created in 1137 as a result of the marriage of the Count of Barcelona, Ramón Berenguer IV, to Doña Petronilla, the daughter of Ramiro II of Aragón. Thanks to its favourable geographic location, it was fed from all sides by the most important artistic currents and tendencies throughout the entire Middle Ages, which, in turn, where then united with the native art of Aragón - and we must not forget that, day by day, Aragón was being reconquered piece by piece from Arab occupation. This union of European influences with Aragonian art and culture gave birth to an important and early cultural renaissance in the fourteenth century, the prime centre of which was Catalonia, the territory that formerly belonged to the counts of Barcelona. And, although there were several focal points, one was of very particular significance during that period, namely, the court. The count-kings of Catalonia and Aragón were known as generous patrons of the arts during the entire fourteenth century (but especially in the second half). From the reign of James II, 1291-1327, through that of Martin I (called the “Humane”), 1396-1410, the royal house of Catalonia and Aragón succeeded in attracting some of the period’s most outstanding scientists and artists, including famous musicians, some of whom were performers, others composers, and still others both. For medieval nobility music was a constant source of regeneration and delight. We know that from earliest times kings, dukes, counts - and in general anyone who could afford the luxury - kept several musicians in his household to be able to enjoy music in moments of leisure. At first such musicians were called “jongleurs”, later “ménestriers” or minstrels (1), The minstrels in the service of the royal house of Aragón take on very special significance during the second half of the fourteenth century, with respect both to their number and to their contribution. Local musicians were joined by a large number of foreigners, in particular by Italians like Pere d’Arezzo, Baldo de Florença and Jacopo da Bologna, but later by French, Flemish and German musicians like Thibaut de Vallraynes, Johani de Sent Luch, Jacomi Capeta, Hohan Estrumant, Jacquet de Noyo, Midach and the many others employed by John I (1387-1396). They all had great reputations; their works and performances surely formed the avant-garde in the musical and artistic styles of the period, and they were largely responsible for making the royal court of Aragón one of the most important germinating centres for the musical style known as “Ars Nova". The jongleurs and minstrels were not totally responsible for the establishment of this important centre of music, however, for major roles were also played by the musicians and composers of the various churches connected with the royal court. Nearly all of the latter had been trained in the music schools of Avignon, which was both the papal residence and the famous centre of religious music of the day. From Avignon came names like Steve de Sort, Bonifaci de Xartres, Nicolau de Mallines, Johan Flamench, Jehan Robert (alias Trebor) and Gacian Reyneau. And the last two named, for example, were both experienced composers of secular music. We also know that John I was so inspired by the performance of his church musicians that he once tried to follow in their footsteps. With their help, as he himself confesses in a letter, he composed “i rondó con su tenor, contratenor y canto correspondientes” - rondeaux (poems with refrain or burden) with appropriate tenor, countertenor and song parts. Moreover, he made it clear that he was willing to do the same in French with any virelai, rondeau or ballad that one might suggest he set to music. It should be remembered that French influences on the Catalonian court were constantly present throughout the entire Middle Ages, but that is no reason for John’s music to be considered any less extraordinary. It is obvious that during the second half of the fourteenth century - with such an artistic and musical climate at the court in which the most important trends in both the secular and the religious music of French Ars Nova converged - all of the prominent musical centres in the kingdom profited, at least all of those with direct connection to the court. Only when we take these circles and their high interest in music into consideration and realize what in those days winning such circles for Ars Nova meant, can we somewhat explain the fact that in Catalonia there could be a manuscript of so singular cast as the Llibre Vermell (Red Book) of Montserrat. The Monastery at Montserrat In Europe during the Middle Ages it was not seldom that a shrine was erected where a saint or apostle was buried or where, according to legend, a miracle had been performed by the Virgin Mother (whose image was honoured there). A church was invariably constructed on such sites, and, not far away, a monastery was often founded that was charged with the care and supervision of the holy ground and at the same time was placed under its protection. In Spain two shrines were especially famous: one was Santiago de Compostela to which pilgrims travelled from all over Europe to visit the grave of St. James the Apostle; the other was Montserrat, that was more or less restricted to local pilgrims but that had long become the centre of the worship of the Blessed Virgin for all Catalonia. There is indication that there had already been a chapel to the Blessed Virgin in Montserrat at the end of the ninth century and that during the same period there were hermits dwelling in the mountain. The image of the Virgin that is worshipped in Montserrat today, however, is a wonderful Romanesque wood-carving that dates from the end of the twelvth century or the beginning of the thirteenth century. A little monastery was founded there around 1027. It was originally a dependency ofthe monastery at Ripoll, but with time it became famous and was enlarged continuously until apparently by the end of the Middle Ages - when pilgrimages there had steadily increased - it had developed into one of the most important cultural centres in Catalonia. We have only scanty information on the monastery of Montserrat during the first centuries of its existence, primarily because of the lamentable fact that its extremely rich library and its archives were burned in 1811 during the Napoleonic wars. As not many of the medieval manuscripts from the “scriptorium” (writing-room) of the Montserrat monastery have come down to us, the value and significance of the new preserved manuscripts is greatly increased, most especially since some of them are of the quality and uniquences of the Llibre Vermell. The monks of Montserrat have always been highly educated. Let us remember, as already mentioned, the monastery`s original dependence upon the Benedictine monastery at Ripoll. Montserrat was founded through the initiative of one of its most famous abbots, Oliva (1023-1046) and drew its first fraternity from the monastery at Ripoll That was at a time when Ripoll represented for Catalonia more or less what St. Martial of Limoges to France and St. Gall to Switzerland were, for it was Catalonia’s most important centre of religious culture. Ripoll kept in constant with the monasteries on the other side of the Pyrenees while important schools blossomed forth within Ripoll itself. One such school that perhaps should be given special mention was the music school, the import of which is indicated by the fact that it even invented its own notational system. As a result, Montserrat was a little centre of culture right from the time of its founding as a branch house of Ripoll. It was not only to outgrow the latter’s supervision (in 1409), but to outlive the  principal house while nevertheless remaining within its intellectual tradition. Hence, it is not at all astonishing that Montserrat had the “sciptorium” referred to above, and it is even less surprising that original works and copies of texts of extreme interest were written there. Although our information comes from the fourteenth century, we do know that some of the monks studied at faraway places while others performed general studies inside of the borders of the kingdom (for example, in Lérida, Perpignan, Montpellier and Barcelona), that still others studied at various monastic schools conducted by the Benedictine order, and that some probably even attended universities as distant as Paris and Bologna. Too, beginning in the twelvth century, the small circle of intellectuals at Montserrat was expanded by the remarkable presence of a number of priests on the holy mountain, each of whom was in somewise connected with a noble (usually Catalonian) family which he was supposed ro represent in the daily masses held at the altar of the Virgin for and in the name of the noblemen. Many of these priests were well educated; some of them were true scholars, and, although they did not form part of the monastic fraternity, living in such close contact with the monks led to a constant exchange of ideas. Llibre Vermell The most precious codex among the manuscripts now held in the library at Montserrat is, beyond any doubt, its famous Ms. No. 1, which is better known by the name Llibre Vermell. The copy there was made toward the end of the fourteenth century or at the beginning of the fifteenth century. The name comes from the red velvet cover that was made for it at some time during the last third of the nineteenth century. The codex is believed originally to have contained around 172 sheets (in folio), of which only 137 have been preserved. As is true of so many medieval codices, its content is quite varied, but special mention should be made of the double sheets, namely Folio 21 V° 27, on which ten musical works of an anonymous composer are found - the number was larger before part of the codex was lost. These works follow the copyist’s carefully noted and clear intention that is stated in connection with the first of the songs that have come down to us: “As the pilgrims, while holding night vigil in the Church to the Blessed Virgin in Montserrat, sometimes have the desire to sing and to dance, and even want to do so during the day on the Church Square (where only virtous and pious songs may be sung), a number of suitable songs have been written for and according to this need. They should be used in a respectful and moderate manner so as not to disturb those who wish to go on with their prayers and religious meditations to which, incidentally, everyone should dedicate himself devoutly during the evening prayer." A few pages later it is also recommended that the pilgrims to Montserrat “speak in a restrained manner and avoid frivolous songs and indecent dances on the way to, while at the shrine as well as on the way back home”. The repertory of the Llibre Vermell stems from the desire to provide the good people who make pilgrimages to the altar of the Virgin with locally acceptable songs that were meant to replace temporarily all of the songs based on folkloristic tradition. It has already been mentioned that, with respect to the number of pilgrims who visited Montserrat, the fourteenth century was one of the most important centuries. We may, therefore, assume that the repertory of songs that were sung and danced during those years was extremely well-known among the people. The time that these songs found entry into the codex has been placed between 1398 and 1399. The copy was completed in the latter year. It is assumed that the songs - if not all, at least most - had been previously written and that they were written down only because tradition had confirmed both their textual and their melodic importance. The compositions found in the Llibre Vermell are by no means uniform. They reveal remarkable differences that - one might say - make them even more interesting. With respect to notation, all of the songs except O virgo splendens (that now appears as the first song of the codex and is written in Gregorian-like quadratic shapes) reveal the French Ars Nova’s own notational system and thus follow the criteria that had led to Philippe de Vitry’s notational system around 1320. Nevertheless, in written appearance, five compositons (Stella splendens, Los set goyts, Cuncti simus, Polorum regina and Ad mortem festinamus) show several individual features that for practical purposes, however, do not f as far as we know today - deviate from those of Vitry’s Ars Nova. Formally speaking, half of the compositions are virelais, a form that basically consists in the alternation of two musical lines, one of which, the refrain, is repeated twice: the first time with the text of the respective stanza and the second time with its own text (2). The works following this structural pattern are: Stella splendens, Cuncti simus, Polorum regina, Mariam matrem and Ad mortem festinamus. As noted in the manuscript itself, the songs O virgo splendens, Laudemus virginem and Splendens ceptigera take the form of two or three-part songs. These canons may be sung by two or three voices, or, in other words, they have a melody that repeats itself but with repetitions that start up at different times. Los set goyts is a ballad that concurs in certain points with the ballad form of the Italian Ars Nova. The last lied that must be mentioned is Imperayritz, a motet (3) in the French style, although it does not contain a tenor part as would be characteristically expected for this song form. The number of voices for which these compositions were written varies from one to three, whereby it should be remembered that the three canons may be sung by two or three voices. With two exceptions, the texts are all in Latin. Los set goyts and Imperayritz, are in “vulgar” Catalonian. Perhaps one of the most curious features of these compositions is the fact that three of them are labelled dances. The copyist of the Llibre Vermell states that Stella splendens should be performed “ad trepudium rotundum” and while the songs Los set goyts and Polorurn regina should be “a ball redon”, in round dance. This means that all three songs are dances to be performed in a circle: something completely unique in the music that has come down to us from that period. Thus, on arrival, the pilgrims who wished to throw themselves at the feet of the Virgin of Montserrat not only had at  their disposal a repertory of songs to replace the songs that would not be in keeping with the standards of life at the holy site, but also a repertory of dances through which they could express their joy. The Llibre Vermell is not the product of one single composer. We have already pointed out that with only one exception all of the works contained are written in the technical style of Ars Nova. This means that composers in Montserrat were up-to-date with everything concerning music. Nevertheless, in the days in which the Llibre was written, the Ars Nova technique was not at all widespread in Catalonia. Quite the contrary, for we know that, outside of Montserrat, it was employed only by musicians at the royal court. As the worthy successor to the Ripoll Monastery (that had lost its importance entirely by the end of the fourteenth century), the Monastery of Montserrat has always cultivated music. That is why there is nothing out of the ordinary about the fact that the monks who had studied abroad were interested in acquainting themselves with the latest innovations in music and that they returned to their home monastery with the first scores written in the new style. A similar explanation can also be found for the pieces (already mentioned) in the Llibre Vermell that, by the style of their writing, can be classified as belonging to Ars Nova but yet display certain highly unique features: above all, simplicity. For they are surely the works of monks of Montserrat who, in their eager effort to absorb the innovations of the outer world, were attempting to carry the innovations over into a number of compositions and succeeded in doing so in a way that at once was simplifying and yet also of high artistic quality and excellence. For the works that were written in an absolutely pure style of French Ars Nova there are two plausible explanations: either they were written by musicians at the royal court in Aragón in honour of the Virgin of Montserrat, or the composers were the monks themselves writing after having become familiar - under the influence of their closest models, namely those at the court - with the secrets of the composing techniques. Contact between Montserrat and the Court of Aragón was very close on all levels at the time, not only because the monarchs themselves were devoted to the Virgin of Montserrat and were often to be found in prayer at her feet, but also due to the fact that in the fourteenth century Montserrat had already become the most important monastery in the entire kingdom. In closing, it remains only to say that the song O virgo splendens - which is written in an older style than that of the rest of the compositions in the Llibre Vermell - is perhaps the only example of a copy of a polyphonic work that has come down to us which shows the style of writing in Montserrat prior to the incorporation of Ars Nova innovations. Translation by E.D. Echols Notes: 1) Minstrels; professional singers and musicians who, contrary to most troubadours, were not members ofthe nobility (see Gero von Wilpert, Sach-wörterbuch der Literatur Stuttgart, 1969, p.486). 2) Wilpert`s explanation of the virelai is as follows: “French poem form developed from the popular dancing song, in stanzas with skilfully incorporated refrain and two lines, later with one line; then (usually three) four-line stanzas that end with the tune of the refrain and are then followed by the refrain” (p. 828). 3) Motet: French poem form having seven-line stanza with two rhymes and the rhyme-scheme abab/abA, whereby the sixth line is shorter than the others. Was later developed into a polyphonic musical form when the text became of secundary, the melody of primary importance. Source: Wilpert, Op. cit., p. 497
EMI Electrola "Reflexe"